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Jonathan A. C. Brown

Jonathan A. C. Brown

b. 1977 · United States · Scholar of hadith and Islamic law, historian

Jonathan A. C. Brown was born in Washington, D.C., in 1977 and raised in the Episcopal Church. He converted to Islam in 1997 while an undergraduate at Georgetown University, where he graduated in history in 2000. After a year of intensive Arabic at the Center for Arabic Study Abroad in Cairo, he completed a doctorate in Islamic thought at the University of Chicago in 2006.

Brown taught at the University of Washington from 2006 to 2010 and then returned to Georgetown’s School of Foreign Service, where he holds the Alwaleed bin Talal Chair of Islamic Civilization and for some years directed the Prince Alwaleed Bin Talal Center for Muslim-Christian Understanding. He served as editor-in-chief of the Oxford Encyclopedia of Islam and Law and has been associated with the Yaqeen Institute for Islamic Research. He has carried out research in many Muslim-majority countries and has been working on an English translation of Sahih al-Bukhari.

His scholarship centres on hadith and Islamic law. The Canonization of al-Bukhari and Muslim (2007) explained how two collections came to hold canonical status in Sunni Islam, and Hadith: Muhammad’s Legacy in the Medieval and Modern World (2009) became a widely used introduction to the field. Misquoting Muhammad (2014) explores how scholars have interpreted scripture and the difficulties modern Muslims face in doing so, while Slavery and Islam (2019) and Islam and Blackness (2022) address slavery, race and moral judgement across history. A 2026 book examines the mazalim courts and legal reform.

Writing as both an academic historian and a practising Sunni Muslim, Brown engages critically with Western historical-critical scholarship while presenting classical Muslim scholarship on its own terms, and his books reach both university and general Muslim readerships.

Photo: Ben P L, CC BY-SA 2.0, via Wikimedia Commons

Archived 14 October 2026 · Biography sources: en.wikipedia.org · drjonathanbrown.com · sfs.georgetown.edu

Works

Books 7

BOOK 2007 · English
The Canonization of al-Bukhari and Muslim: The Formation and Function of the Sunni Hadith Canon

Based on his doctoral dissertation, a study of how the two Sahih collections came to be treated as canonical in Sunni Islam between the tenth and fourteenth centuries and what functions that canon served.

Archived 14 October 2026 · Source: not yet recorded

Cite

Brown, Jonathan A. C.. The Canonization of al-Bukhari and Muslim: The Formation and Function of the Sunni Hadith Canon. 2007. Archived 14 October 2026 in Islamic Internet Archives: Archive of Modern Islamic Thought. https://islamicarchives.org/authors/jonathan-brown/#jonathan-brown-the-canonization-of-al-bukhari-and-muslim-the

No free copy online
BOOK 2009 · English
Hadith: Muhammad's Legacy in the Medieval and Modern World

An introduction to the transmission, criticism and use of hadith in Sunni and Shi'i traditions, and to modern Muslim and Western debates over their authenticity; an expanded edition appeared in 2017.

Archived 14 October 2026 · Source: archive.org

Cite

Brown, Jonathan A. C.. Hadith: Muhammad's Legacy in the Medieval and Modern World. 2009. Archived 14 October 2026 in Islamic Internet Archives: Archive of Modern Islamic Thought. https://islamicarchives.org/authors/jonathan-brown/#jonathan-brown-hadith-muhammads-legacy-in-the-medieval-and-modern

No free copy online
BOOK 2011 · English
Muhammad: A Very Short Introduction

A brief account of the Prophet's life as presented in Muslim sources, of how he has been understood by Muslims, and of the historical-critical questions about those sources.

Archived 14 October 2026 · Source: not yet recorded

Cite

Brown, Jonathan A. C.. Muhammad: A Very Short Introduction. 2011. Archived 14 October 2026 in Islamic Internet Archives: Archive of Modern Islamic Thought. https://islamicarchives.org/authors/jonathan-brown/#jonathan-brown-muhammad-a-very-short-introduction

No free copy online
BOOK 2014 · English
Misquoting Muhammad: The Challenge and Choices of Interpreting the Prophet's Legacy

Examines how Muslim scholars have interpreted the Qur'an and the Prophet's sayings, the role of tradition and authority, and the dilemmas modern Muslims face in reading scripture.

Archived 14 October 2026 · Source: archive.org

Cite

Brown, Jonathan A. C.. Misquoting Muhammad: The Challenge and Choices of Interpreting the Prophet's Legacy. 2014. Archived 14 October 2026 in Islamic Internet Archives: Archive of Modern Islamic Thought. https://islamicarchives.org/authors/jonathan-brown/#jonathan-brown-misquoting-muhammad-the-challenge-and-choices-of-interpreting

No free copy online
BOOK 2019 · English
Slavery and Islam

Studies how slavery was regulated in Islamic law and practice, how Muslims responded to abolition, and the moral questions raised by judging past institutions.

Archived 14 October 2026 · Source: not yet recorded

Cite

Brown, Jonathan A. C.. Slavery and Islam. 2019. Archived 14 October 2026 in Islamic Internet Archives: Archive of Modern Islamic Thought. https://islamicarchives.org/authors/jonathan-brown/#jonathan-brown-slavery-and-islam

No free copy online
BOOK 2022 · English
Islam and Blackness

Investigates attitudes to race and Blackness in Islamic scripture, law and history, and the presence of anti-Black prejudice in Muslim societies.

Archived 14 October 2026 · Source: simonandschuster.co.uk

Cite

Brown, Jonathan A. C.. Islam and Blackness. 2022. Archived 14 October 2026 in Islamic Internet Archives: Archive of Modern Islamic Thought. https://islamicarchives.org/authors/jonathan-brown/#jonathan-brown-islam-and-blackness

No free copy online

Articles & essays 10

ESSAY 2013 · English · Jadaliyya
The Rise and Fall of the Salafi al-Nour Party in Egypt

Archived 14 October 2026 · Source: jadaliyya.com

Cite

Brown, Jonathan A. C.. The Rise and Fall of the Salafi al-Nour Party in Egypt. 2013. https://www.jadaliyya.com/Details/29813. Archived 14 October 2026 in Islamic Internet Archives: Archive of Modern Islamic Thought. https://islamicarchives.org/authors/jonathan-brown/#rise-and-fall-of-the-salafi-al-nour-party

ESSAY 2015 · English · Variety
Muslim Scholar on How Islam Really Views Homosexuality

Archived 14 October 2026 · Source: variety.com

Cite

Brown, Jonathan A. C.. Muslim Scholar on How Islam Really Views Homosexuality. 2015. https://variety.com/2015/voices/opinion/islam-gay-marriage-beliefs-muslim-religion-1201531047/. Archived 14 October 2026 in Islamic Internet Archives: Archive of Modern Islamic Thought. https://islamicarchives.org/authors/jonathan-brown/#how-islam-views-homosexuality

ESSAY 2016 · English · Brookings Institution
Rethinking Language: “Islamism” as a Dirty Word

Archived 14 October 2026 · Source: brookings.edu

Cite

Brown, Jonathan A. C.. Rethinking Language: “Islamism” as a Dirty Word. 2016. https://www.brookings.edu/articles/rethinking-language-islamism-as-a-dirty-word/. Archived 14 October 2026 in Islamic Internet Archives: Archive of Modern Islamic Thought. https://islamicarchives.org/authors/jonathan-brown/#islamism-as-a-dirty-word

ESSAY 2016 · English · Al-Madina Institute
The Moral Hollowness and Futility of Islamophobia

Archived 14 October 2026 · Source: almadina.org

Cite

Brown, Jonathan A. C.. The Moral Hollowness and Futility of Islamophobia. 2016. https://www.almadina.org/studio/articles/the-moral-hollowness-and-futility-of-islamophobia. Archived 14 October 2026 in Islamic Internet Archives: Archive of Modern Islamic Thought. https://islamicarchives.org/authors/jonathan-brown/#moral-hollowness-and-futility-of-islamophobia

ESSAY 2017 · English · Al-Madina Institute
The Call-Out Culture: An Islamic Perspective

Archived 14 October 2026 · Source: almadina.org

Cite

Brown, Jonathan A. C.. The Call-Out Culture: An Islamic Perspective. 2017. https://www.almadina.org/studio/articles/the-call-out-culture-an-islamic-perspective. Archived 14 October 2026 in Islamic Internet Archives: Archive of Modern Islamic Thought. https://islamicarchives.org/authors/jonathan-brown/#call-out-culture-an-islamic-perspective

ESSAY 2018 · English · MuslimMatters
Keeping Our Eye on the Ball: The Problem with the UAE Summit

Archived 14 October 2026 · Source: muslimmatters.org

Cite

Brown, Jonathan A. C.. Keeping Our Eye on the Ball: The Problem with the UAE Summit. 2018. https://muslimmatters.org/2018/12/17/keeping-our-eye-on-the-ball-the-problem-with-the-uae-summit/. Archived 14 October 2026 in Islamic Internet Archives: Archive of Modern Islamic Thought. https://islamicarchives.org/authors/jonathan-brown/#keeping-our-eye-on-the-ball

ESSAY 2021 · English · Contending Modernities
Rejoining the Ottoman and South Asian Worlds

Archived 14 October 2026 · Source: contendingmodernities.nd.edu

Cite

Brown, Jonathan A. C.. Rejoining the Ottoman and South Asian Worlds. 2021. https://contendingmodernities.nd.edu/theorizing-modernities/rejoining-the-ottoman-and-south-asian-worlds/. Archived 14 October 2026 in Islamic Internet Archives: Archive of Modern Islamic Thought. https://islamicarchives.org/authors/jonathan-brown/#rejoining-the-ottoman-and-south-asian-worlds

ARTICLE 2022 · English · Yaqeen Institute (blog)
Celebrating the Holidays as a Muslim Convert

Archived 14 October 2026 · Source: Yaqeen Institute

Cite

Brown, Jonathan A. C.. Celebrating the Holidays as a Muslim Convert. 2022. Yaqeen Institute, https://yaqeeninstitute.org/read/blog/celebrating-the-holidays-as-a-muslim-convert. Archived 14 October 2026 in Islamic Internet Archives: Archive of Modern Islamic Thought. https://islamicarchives.org/authors/jonathan-brown/#yq-celebrating-the-holidays-as-a-muslim-convert

REVIEW 2023 · English · Journal of Islamic Ethics 7
Review of Bernard K. Freamon, Possessed by the Right Hand

Archived 14 October 2026 · Source: brill.com

Cite

Brown, Jonathan A. C.. Review of Bernard K. Freamon, Possessed by the Right Hand. 2023. https://brill.com/view/journals/jie/7/1-2/article-p246_12.xml. Archived 14 October 2026 in Islamic Internet Archives: Archive of Modern Islamic Thought. https://islamicarchives.org/authors/jonathan-brown/#review-possessed-by-the-right-hand

ESSAY 2024 · English · TraSIS Blog, University of Bern
Can People Sell Their Children into Slavery? Cultural Relativism vs. Universality in Islamic Jurisprudence

Archived 14 October 2026 · Source: trasisblog.unibe.ch

Cite

Brown, Jonathan A. C.. Can People Sell Their Children into Slavery? Cultural Relativism vs. Universality in Islamic Jurisprudence. 2024. https://trasisblog.unibe.ch/?p=331. Archived 14 October 2026 in Islamic Internet Archives: Archive of Modern Islamic Thought. https://islamicarchives.org/authors/jonathan-brown/#can-people-sell-their-children-into-slavery

Papers 20

POLICY PAPER 2011 · English · Carnegie Endowment for International Peace
Salafis and Sufis in Egypt

Carnegie Endowment paper analysing the rise of Salafi political parties and the position of Sufi orders in Egypt after the 2011 revolution.

Archived 14 October 2026 · Source: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace (free PDF)

Cite

Brown, Jonathan A. C.. Salafis and Sufis in Egypt. 2011. Carnegie Endowment for International Peace (free PDF), https://carnegieendowment.org/files/salafis_sufis.pdf. Archived 14 October 2026 in Islamic Internet Archives: Archive of Modern Islamic Thought. https://islamicarchives.org/authors/jonathan-brown/#jonathan-brown-salafis-and-sufis-in-egypt

PAPER 2016 · English · al-ʿUṣūr al-Wusṭā 24
A Man for All Seasons: Ibn ʿUqda and Crossing Sectarian Boundaries in the 4th/10th Century

The Kufan hadith scholar Ibn ʿUqda and how Sunni and Shiʿi scholars drew on him. Revised version of a 2008 article.

Archived 14 October 2026 · Source: middleeastmedievalists.com

Cite

Brown, Jonathan A. C.. A Man for All Seasons: Ibn ʿUqda and Crossing Sectarian Boundaries in the 4th/10th Century. 2016. https://www.middleeastmedievalists.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/11/UW-24-Brown.pdf. Archived 14 October 2026 in Islamic Internet Archives: Archive of Modern Islamic Thought. https://islamicarchives.org/authors/jonathan-brown/#a-man-for-all-seasons-ibn-uqda

PAPER 2016 · English · Yaqeen Institute
Islam is not the Cause of Honor Killings. It’s Part of the Solution.

Archived 14 October 2026 · Source: Yaqeen Institute

Cite

Brown, Jonathan A. C.. Islam is not the Cause of Honor Killings. It’s Part of the Solution.. 2016. Yaqeen Institute, https://yaqeeninstitute.org/read/paper/islam-is-not-the-cause-of-honor-killings-its-part-of-the-solution. Archived 14 October 2026 in Islamic Internet Archives: Archive of Modern Islamic Thought. https://islamicarchives.org/authors/jonathan-brown/#yq-islam-is-not-the-cause-of-honor-killings-its-part

CHAPTER 2016 · English · Georgetown University Press (Building Bridges)
Sin, Forgiveness, and Reconciliation: A Muslim Perspective

His opening lecture at the 2014 Building Bridges seminar.

Archived 14 October 2026 · Source: buildingbridges.georgetown.edu

Cite

Brown, Jonathan A. C.. Sin, Forgiveness, and Reconciliation: A Muslim Perspective. 2016. https://buildingbridges.georgetown.edu/publications/sin-forgiveness-and-reconciliation-christian-and-muslim-perspectives. Archived 14 October 2026 in Islamic Internet Archives: Archive of Modern Islamic Thought. https://islamicarchives.org/authors/jonathan-brown/#sin-forgiveness-and-reconciliation

PAPER 2017 · English · Yaqeen Institute
Is Islam a Death Cult? Martyrdom and the American-Muslim Imagination

Archived 14 October 2026 · Source: Yaqeen Institute

Cite

Brown, Jonathan A. C.. Is Islam a Death Cult? Martyrdom and the American-Muslim Imagination. 2017. Yaqeen Institute, https://yaqeeninstitute.org/read/paper/is-islam-a-death-cult-martyrdom-and-the-american-muslim-imagination. Archived 14 October 2026 in Islamic Internet Archives: Archive of Modern Islamic Thought. https://islamicarchives.org/authors/jonathan-brown/#yq-is-islam-a-death-cult-martyrdom-and-the-american-muslim

PAPER 2017 · English · Yaqeen Institute
Slavery and Islam: What is Slavery? with Abdullah Hamid Ali

Archived 14 October 2026 · Source: Yaqeen Institute

Cite

Brown, Jonathan A. C.. Slavery and Islam: What is Slavery?. 2017. Yaqeen Institute, https://yaqeeninstitute.org/read/paper/slavery-and-islam-what-is-slavery. Archived 14 October 2026 in Islamic Internet Archives: Archive of Modern Islamic Thought. https://islamicarchives.org/authors/jonathan-brown/#yq-slavery-and-islam-what-is-slavery

PAPER 2017 · English · Yaqeen Institute
Stoning and Hand Cutting—Understanding the Hudud and the Shariah in Islam

Archived 14 October 2026 · Source: Yaqeen Institute

Cite

Brown, Jonathan A. C.. Stoning and Hand Cutting—Understanding the Hudud and the Shariah in Islam. 2017. Yaqeen Institute, https://yaqeeninstitute.org/read/paper/stoning-and-hand-cutting-understanding-the-hudud-and-the-shariah-in-islam. Archived 14 October 2026 in Islamic Internet Archives: Archive of Modern Islamic Thought. https://islamicarchives.org/authors/jonathan-brown/#yq-stoning-and-hand-cutting-understanding-the-hudud-and-the-shariah

PAPER 2017 · English · Yaqeen Institute
The Issue of Apostasy in Islam

Archived 14 October 2026 · Source: Yaqeen Institute

Cite

Brown, Jonathan A. C.. The Issue of Apostasy in Islam. 2017. Yaqeen Institute, https://yaqeeninstitute.org/read/paper/the-issue-of-apostasy-in-islam. Archived 14 October 2026 in Islamic Internet Archives: Archive of Modern Islamic Thought. https://islamicarchives.org/authors/jonathan-brown/#yq-the-issue-of-apostasy-in-islam

PAPER 2018 · English · Yaqeen Institute
The Fate of Non-Muslims: Perspectives on Salvation Outside of Islam

Archived 14 October 2026 · Source: Yaqeen Institute

Cite

Brown, Jonathan A. C.. The Fate of Non-Muslims: Perspectives on Salvation Outside of Islam. 2018. Yaqeen Institute, https://yaqeeninstitute.org/read/paper/the-fate-of-non-muslims-perspectives-on-salvation-outside-of-islam. Archived 14 October 2026 in Islamic Internet Archives: Archive of Modern Islamic Thought. https://islamicarchives.org/authors/jonathan-brown/#yq-the-fate-of-non-muslims-perspectives-on-salvation-outside-of

PAPER 2018 · English · Yaqeen Institute
Understanding Aisha’s Age: An Interdisciplinary Approach with Asadullah Ali Al-Andalusi

Archived 14 October 2026 · Source: Yaqeen Institute

Cite

Brown, Jonathan A. C.. Understanding Aisha’s Age: An Interdisciplinary Approach. 2018. Yaqeen Institute, https://yaqeeninstitute.org/read/paper/understanding-aishas-age-an-interdisciplinary-approach. Archived 14 October 2026 in Islamic Internet Archives: Archive of Modern Islamic Thought. https://islamicarchives.org/authors/jonathan-brown/#yq-understanding-aishas-age-an-interdisciplinary-approach

PAPER 2019 · English · Yaqeen Institute
An Open Letter to Muslim Men: The Sunnah Trumps Toxic Masculinity

Archived 14 October 2026 · Source: Yaqeen Institute

Cite

Brown, Jonathan A. C.. An Open Letter to Muslim Men: The Sunnah Trumps Toxic Masculinity. 2019. Yaqeen Institute, https://yaqeeninstitute.org/read/paper/an-open-letter-to-muslim-men-the-sunnah-trumps-toxic-masculinity. Archived 14 October 2026 in Islamic Internet Archives: Archive of Modern Islamic Thought. https://islamicarchives.org/authors/jonathan-brown/#yq-an-open-letter-to-muslim-men-the-sunnah-trumps-toxic

PAPER 2019 · English · Yaqeen Institute
Blind Spots: The Origins of the Western Method of Critiquing Hadith

Archived 14 October 2026 · Source: Yaqeen Institute

Cite

Brown, Jonathan A. C.. Blind Spots: The Origins of the Western Method of Critiquing Hadith. 2019. Yaqeen Institute, https://yaqeeninstitute.org/read/paper/blind-spots-the-origins-of-the-western-method-of-critiquing-hadith. Archived 14 October 2026 in Islamic Internet Archives: Archive of Modern Islamic Thought. https://islamicarchives.org/authors/jonathan-brown/#yq-blind-spots-the-origins-of-the-western-method-of-critiquing

PAPER 2020 · English · Yaqeen Institute
Do the Qur’an and Sunnah Speak More Often to Men than Women?

Archived 14 October 2026 · Source: Yaqeen Institute

Cite

Brown, Jonathan A. C.. Do the Qur’an and Sunnah Speak More Often to Men than Women?. 2020. Yaqeen Institute, https://yaqeeninstitute.org/read/paper/do-the-quran-and-sunnah-speak-more-often-to-men-than-women. Archived 14 October 2026 in Islamic Internet Archives: Archive of Modern Islamic Thought. https://islamicarchives.org/authors/jonathan-brown/#yq-do-the-quran-and-sunnah-speak-more-often-to-men

PAPER 2020 · English · Annals of Japan Association for Middle East Studies 36/2
Slavery and Sufism: The Ḥilyat al-Awliyāʾ as a Source on Slavery in Medieval Islamic Civilization

Archived 14 October 2026 · Source: jstage.jst.go.jp

Cite

Brown, Jonathan A. C.. Slavery and Sufism: The Ḥilyat al-Awliyāʾ as a Source on Slavery in Medieval Islamic Civilization. 2020. https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/ajames/36/2/36_29/_article/-char/en. Archived 14 October 2026 in Islamic Internet Archives: Archive of Modern Islamic Thought. https://islamicarchives.org/authors/jonathan-brown/#slavery-and-sufism-hilyat-al-awliya

CHAPTER 2020 · English · Georgetown University Press (Building Bridges)
The Power of God and Islam’s Regime of Power on Earth

Archived 14 October 2026 · Source: buildingbridges.georgetown.edu

Cite

Brown, Jonathan A. C.. The Power of God and Islam’s Regime of Power on Earth. 2020. https://buildingbridges.georgetown.edu/publications/power-divine-and-human-christian-and-muslim-perspectives. Archived 14 October 2026 in Islamic Internet Archives: Archive of Modern Islamic Thought. https://islamicarchives.org/authors/jonathan-brown/#power-of-god-and-islams-regime-of-power

PAPER 2021 · English · Yaqeen Institute
Authenticating Hadith and the History of Hadith Criticism

Archived 14 October 2026 · Source: Yaqeen Institute

Cite

Brown, Jonathan A. C.. Authenticating Hadith and the History of Hadith Criticism. 2021. Yaqeen Institute, https://yaqeeninstitute.org/read/paper/authenticating-hadith-and-the-history-of-hadith-criticism. Archived 14 October 2026 in Islamic Internet Archives: Archive of Modern Islamic Thought. https://islamicarchives.org/authors/jonathan-brown/#yq-authenticating-hadith-and-the-history-of-hadith-criticism

PAPER 2021 · English · Yaqeen Institute
Islam and Anti-Blackness: Leaving Ignorance Behind

Archived 14 October 2026 · Source: Yaqeen Institute

Cite

Brown, Jonathan A. C.. Islam and Anti-Blackness: Leaving Ignorance Behind. 2021. Yaqeen Institute, https://yaqeeninstitute.org/read/paper/islam-and-anti-blackness-leaving-ignorance-behind. Archived 14 October 2026 in Islamic Internet Archives: Archive of Modern Islamic Thought. https://islamicarchives.org/authors/jonathan-brown/#yq-islam-and-anti-blackness-leaving-ignorance-behind

CHAPTER 2021 · English · Georgetown University Press (Building Bridges)
Slavery: A Source of Theological Tension

Archived 14 October 2026 · Source: buildingbridges.georgetown.edu

Cite

Brown, Jonathan A. C.. Slavery: A Source of Theological Tension. 2021. https://buildingbridges.georgetown.edu/publications/a-world-of-inequalities-christian-and-muslim-perspectives. Archived 14 October 2026 in Islamic Internet Archives: Archive of Modern Islamic Thought. https://islamicarchives.org/authors/jonathan-brown/#slavery-a-source-of-theological-tension

PAPER 2024 · English · Yaqeen Institute
Slavery and Emancipation in the Sharia: The Islamic Framework for Ethical Treatment of Slaves in the Minhāj fī shuʿab al-īmān of al-Ḥalīmī

Archived 14 October 2026 · Source: Yaqeen Institute

Cite

Brown, Jonathan A. C.. Slavery and Emancipation in the Sharia: The Islamic Framework for Ethical Treatment of Slaves in the Minhāj fī shuʿab al-īmān of al-Ḥalīmī. 2024. Yaqeen Institute, https://yaqeeninstitute.org/read/paper/slavery-and-emancipation-in-the-sharia-the-islamic-framework-for-ethical-treatment-of-slaves-in-the-minhaj-fi-shuab-al-iman-of-al-halimi. Archived 14 October 2026 in Islamic Internet Archives: Archive of Modern Islamic Thought. https://islamicarchives.org/authors/jonathan-brown/#yq-slavery-and-emancipation-in-the-sharia-the-islamic-framework-for

PAPER 2025 · English · Hashiya, Issue 1
Introduction to al-Tirmidhī and his Kitāb al-ʿIlal al-ṣaghīr

An introduction and annotated translation of al-Tirmidhī’s short book on hadith criticism.

Archived 14 October 2026 · Source: hashiya.org

Cite

Brown, Jonathan A. C.. Introduction to al-Tirmidhī and his Kitāb al-ʿIlal al-ṣaghīr. 2025. https://hashiya.org/posts/tirmidhi-kitab-ilal-saghir. Archived 14 October 2026 in Islamic Internet Archives: Archive of Modern Islamic Thought. https://islamicarchives.org/authors/jonathan-brown/#tirmidhi-kitab-al-ilal-al-saghir